Under ordinary circumstances, thermoregulatory mechanisms exist in the healthy human body to maintain the body at a constant temperature of about 37° C. (98.6° F.), a condition sometimes referred to as normothermia. Normothermia is generally a desirable condition, and to maintain normothermia, the thermoregulatory mechanisms act so that heat lost to the environment is replaced by the same amount of heat generated by metabolic activity in the body.
For various reasons, a person may develop a body temperature that is below normothermia, a condition known as hypothermia, or a temperature that is above normothermia, a condition known as hyperthermia. These conditions are generally harmful and are usually treated to reverse the condition and return the patient to normothermia. In certain other situations, however, they may be desirable and may even be intentionally induced.
Accidental hypothermia may result when heat loss to the environment exceeds the body's ability to produce heat internally or when a person's thermoregulatory ability has been lessened due to injury, illness or anesthesia. For example, a person exposed to a cold environment such as a hiker wandering in a very cold climate for too long, or a sailor overboard in cold water, may become dangerously hypothermic. Likewise, anesthesia generally disables a patient's thermoregulatory ability, and it is often the case that, during long surgery with significant exposure of the patient's internal body cavities, a patient becomes significantly hypothermic. Such hypothermia is generally harmful, and must be quickly reversed to restore the victim to health.
Simple methods for treating hypothermia have been known since very early times. Such methods include wrapping the patient in blankets, administering warm fluids by mouth, and immersing the patient in a warm water bath. If the hypothermia is not too severe, and the need to reverse the hypothermia is not to urgent, these methods may be effective. However, wrapping a patient in a blanket depends on the ability of the patient's own body to generate heat to re-warm the body. Administering warm fluids by mouth relies on the patient's ability to swallow, and is limited both in the temperature of the liquid consumed and the amount of fluid that may be administered in a limited period of time. Immersing a patient in warm water is often impractical, particularly if the patient is simultaneously undergoing surgery or some other medical procedure
More recently, hypothermia may be treated by the application of a warming blanket that applies heat to the skin of the patient. Applying heat to the patient's skin, however, may be ineffective in providing heat to the core of the patient's body. Heat applied to the skin has to transmit through the skin by conduction or radiation which may be slow and inefficient, especially if the patient has a significant layer of fat between the warming blanket and the body's core.
Paradoxically, if the patient is suffering significant core hypothermia, the application of warmth to the patient's skin, whether by immersion in hot water or application of a warm blanket, may actually exacerbate the core hypothermia and may even induce shock. The body's thermoregulatory responses to cold that work to conserve heat in the body's core include vasoconstriction and arterio-venous shunting (AV shunts). Vasoconstriction occurs when the capillaries and other blood vessels in the skin and extremities constrict so that most of the blood pumped by the heart circulates within the core rather than through the skin and extremities. Similarly, in AV shunting, naturally occurring blood shunts exist between some arteries providing blood to capillary beds in the skin and extremities and veins returning blood from those capillary beds and extremities. When the body is cooled, the vessels in the capillary beds constrict, and the shunts may be opened, causing blood to by-pass those capillary beds altogether. Thus when the body is cold, the tissues in the extremities, and particularly at the surface, have little blood flowing to them and may become quite cold relative to the body's core temperature.
When heat is applied to the skin of such a patient, the temperature sensors in the skin may cause the vasoconstriction to reverse and the AV shunts to close. When this happens, blood from the core floods into the very cold tissue on the body surface and extremities, and as a result the blood loses heat to those tissues, often far more than the amount of heat being added by the surface warming. As a result, the victim's core temperature may plummet and the patient may even go into shock.
Partly in response to the inadequacies of surface application of heat, methods have been developed for adding heat to a patient's body by internal means. A patient being administered breathing gases, for example a patient under anesthesia, may have the breathing gases warmed. For some situations, particularly mild hypothermia requiring the addition of small amounts of heat, this method may be effective, but it is limited in the amount of heat that can be administered without injuring the lungs. Similarly, a patient receiving IV fluids may have the fluids warmed, or a bolus of warm fluid may be administered intravenously. Again, this may be effective in the case of mild hypothermia, but the amount of heat that may be added to a patient's body is limited because the temperature of the IV fluid is limited to a temperature that will not be destructive to the blood, generally thought to be about 41° C.-49° C., and the amount of fluid that is acceptable to administer to the patient.
A more invasive method may be used to add heat to a patient's blood, particularly in the case of heart surgery. A cannula is attached to a vein, usually the inferior vena cava (IVC) of a patient, the vein clamped off and virtually all the patient's blood shunted through the cannula to an external pump. The blood is then pumped back into the patient's body, generally to the arterial side of the patient's circulation. Blood removed from a patient may be heated or cooled externally before it is reintroduced into the patient's body. An example of such a by-pass arrangement is the Cardio-Pulmonary By-pass system (CPB) often used in open heart surgery.
This by-pass method, once it is initiated, is both fast and effective in adding or removing heat from a patient's blood and in exercising control over the patient's body temperature in general, but has the disadvantage of involving a very invasive medical procedure which requires the use of complex equipment, a team of highly skilled operators, is generally only available in a surgical setting, and because of these complexities, requires a long time to initiate. In fact, it generally cannot begin until after the patient's thorax has been surgically opened. For all these reasons, it is generally not useful for emergency treatment of hypothermia. By-pass also involves mechanical pumping of blood, which is generally very destructive to the blood resulting in cytotoxic and thrombolytic problems associated with removal of blood from the body, channeling the blood through various tubes, artificially oxygenating the blood, and returning the blood subjected to these stresses to the circulatory system, including the brain. Because of the potential harmful impact on the patient, most surgeons attempt to limit the time a patient is subjected to by-pass to less than four hours.
Methods for adding heat to the core of the body that do not involve pumping the blood with an external, mechanical pump have been suggested. For example, a method of treating or inducing hypothermia or hyperthermia by means of a heat exchange catheter placed in the bloodstream of a patient was described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,486,208 to Ginsburg, the complete disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. That patent discloses and claims a method of increasing a patient's body temperature by adding heat to the blood by inserting a heat exchange catheter having a balloon with heat exchange fins into the vascular system and circulating heat exchange fluid through the balloon while the balloon is in contact with the blood.
Although accidental hypothermia is generally harmful and requires treatment, in some instances it may be desirable to induce hypothermia or permit it to persist in a controlled situation. Hypothermia is generally recognized as being neuroprotective and may be induced for that reason. Neural tissue such as the brain or spinal cord, is particularly subject to damage by vascular disease processes including, but not limited to ischemic or hemorrhagic stroke, blood deprivation for any reason including cardiac arrest, intracerebral or intracranial hemorrhage, and head trauma. Other where hypothermia may be protective include treatment of myocardial infarction, and heart surgery, neurosurgical procedures such as aneurysm repair, endovascular aneurysm repair procedures, spinal surgeries, procedures where the patient is at risk for brain, cardiac or spinal ischemia such as beating heart by-pass surgery or any surgery where the blood supply to the heart, brain or spinal cord may be temporarily interrupted. In each of these instances, damage to brain tissue may occur because of brain ischemia, increased intracranial pressure, edema or other processes, often resulting in a loss of cerebral function and permanent neurological deficits. Hypothermia may be intentionally induced because it is advantageous in such situations. In fact, in some of these situations, such as beating heart by-pass surgery, hypothermia currently occurs as a normal side effect of anesthesia disabling a patient's normal thermoregulatory responses in conjunction with prolonged exposure of the chest cavity. The resultant hypothermia may not itself be harmful if adequate control over the patient's temperature is established, and where the hypothermic condition is controlled as to depth and duration, it may be permitted to persist or even induced. Control of the depth of hypothermia and reversal of hypothermia after the operation are both important, and if that control is not possible, hypothermia is generally thought to be undesirable.
Although the exact mechanism for neuroprotection is not fully understood, lowering the brain temperature is believed to effect neuroprotection through several mechanisms including, the blunting of any elevation in the concentration of neurotransmitters (e.g., glutamate) occurring after ischemic insult, reduction of cerebral metabolic rate, moderation of intracellular calcium transport/metabolism, prevention of ischemia-induced inhibitions of intracellular protein synthesis and/or reduction of free radical formation as well as other enzymatic cascades and even genetic responses.
Besides its benefit as a prophylactic measure, for example during surgery to prevent damage in case of neurologic ischemia, it is also sometimes desirable to induce whole-body or regional hypothermia for as a treatment in response to certain neurological diseases or disorders such as head trauma, spinal trauma and hemorrhagic or ischemic stroke. Hypothermia has also been found to be advantageous as a treatment to protect both neural tissue and cardiac muscle tissue after a myocardial infract (MI). Again, the exact mechanism of benefit is not known, but inducing hypothermia in such situations, after the initial ischemic insult, may lessen damage by decreasing reperfusion injury, interrupting various chemical cascades that would otherwise damage the cells involved, protecting membrane integrity and perhaps even preventing certain genetic changes leading to apoptosis.
Intentionally inducing hypothermia has generally been attempted by either surface cooling or by-pass pumping. Surface cooling has generally proved to be unacceptably slow, since the body heat to be removed must be transmitted from the core to the surface, and has sometimes been altogether unsuccessful since the body's thermoregulatory mechanisms act to oppose any attempt to induce hypothermia and generally succeed in preventing surface cooling from reducing the core temperature of the body. For example, the vasoconstriction and AV shunting may prevent heat generated in the core from being transmitted to the surface by the blood. Thus the surface cooling may only succeed in removing heat from the skin and surface tissue and thus cooling the surface, and not succeed in reducing the core temperature of the patient.
Another thermoregulatory mechanism that may thwart attempts to reduce core temperature by surface cooling is shivering. There are numerous temperature sensors on the body's surface, and these may trigger the body to begin shivering. Shivering results in the generation of a significant amount of metabolic heat, as much as five times more than the resting body, and especially where vasoconstriction and AV shunting reduce blood to the surface of the body, surface cooling such as by a cooling blanket can only reduce the temperature of the patient very slowly, if at all. Even if the thermoregulatory mechanisms are disabled by anesthesia or other drugs, it has generally been found that the cooling by surface measures such as blankets is unacceptably slow for inducing hypothermia. If the patient has fever and thus an elevated set point temperature (the temperature which the body's thermoregulatory responses act to maintain), the patient may even shiver at a temperature above normothermia. In such situations, it has been found that surface cooling is often unable to reduce the patient's temperature even to normothermia. Furthermore, besides often being ineffective and generally being unacceptably slow, surface cooling lacks sufficient control over the target temperature of the patient, since the methods are inadequate to quickly adjust the patient's body temperature and therefore may result in overshoot or other uncontrolled body temperature problems that cannot be adequately managed.
Inducing hypothermia using by-pass techniques is generally effective, fast and controllable, but is also subject to the shortcomings of the by-pass method for adding heat to control accidental hypothermia; it requires a very invasive procedure in an operating room under full anesthesia, with intubation, expensive equipment and highly trained personnel. Even in the situation of open heart surgery or neurosurgery where the patient is in the operating suite and has highly skilled personnel in attendance anyway, the by-pass mechanism requires pumping the blood with a mechanical pump through external circuit, which is generally thought to be very destructive of the blood and is generally not maintained for very long, preferably four hours or less, and cooling cannot be begun before the patient's thorax is opened and a shunt surgically installed, itself a procedure that might induce some neurological ischemia, or continued, nor warming effected, after the patient's thorax is closed. Thus any advantage of pre-cooling before the patient is opened, or continued after or re-warmed after the patient is closed, is not attained by this method, and the patient is exposed to the undesirable effects of external pumping.
Cold breathing gases and cold infusions have generally not been used to induce hypothermia. Breathing cold gases is generally ineffective to induce hypothermia since the lungs are generally structured to be able to breathe very cold air without rapidly inducing hypothermia. Injection of cold infusate would generally be unacceptable as a method of inducing and maintaining hypothermia because infusing the large volume of liquid that would be necessary to induce and maintain hypothermia for a useful length of time would be unacceptable.
The previously mentioned heat exchanged cathetger placed in the bloodstream of a patient overcomes many of these inadequacies of the other methods of combating accidental hypothermia, or intentionally inducing hypothermia. Particularly in view of the body's own thermoregulatory attempts to maintain normothermia, a very efficient heat exchange catheter is highly desirable.
Under certain conditions heat is generated within the body or heat is added from the environment in excess of the body's ability to dissipate heat, and a persons develops a condition of abnormally high body temperature, a condition known as hyperthermia. Examples of this condition may result from exposure to a hot and humid environment or surroundings, overexertion, or exposure to the sun while the body's thermoregulatory mechanisms are disabled by drugs or disease. Additionally, often as a result of injury or disease, a person may establish a set point temperature that is above the normal body temperature of about 37° C. a condition generally known as fever. In another condition, malignant hyperthermia, a condition not well understood, the body may fail to dissipate enough heat and the temperature of the body may spiral to dangerous levels without the body's normal mechanisms being effective to return the patient to normothermia.
Prolonged and severe hyperthermia may have serious and very negative effects. For example, a child with prolonged and high fever as a result of spinal meningitis might suffer permanent brain damage. In stroke, the presence of even a mild fever has been found to correlate with very negative outcome. In such cases, it may be very desirable to counteract the body's attempt to establish a higher temperature, and instead to maintain at temperature at or near normothermia. However, the unaided body is acting to maintain a temperature above 37° C. and the body's own thermoregulatory mechanisms, such as AV shunting and shivering may render surface cooling altogether ineffective in reestablishing normothermia. The advantages of an effective core cooling method are sorely needed in such situations.
As with hypothermia, counter-parts to simple methods for treating undesirable hyperthermia exist, such as cold water baths and cooling blankets, as well as more effective but complex and invasive means such as cooled breathing gases and blood cooled during by-pass. These, however, are subject to the limitations and complications as described above in connection with hypothermia. In addition, as is the case when attempting to induce hypothermia, the thermoregulatory responses of the body such as vasoconstriction, AV shunting and shivering, may act directly to combat the attempt to cool the patient and thereby defeat the effort to treat the hyperthermia. In order to achieve the reduction of accidental, diseased or malignant hyperthermia, a catheter with sufficient heat exchange effectiveness to override the body's thermoregulatory defenses is needed.
For various reasons, it may be desirable to induce and/or maintain hyperthermia. For example, certain cancer cells may be sensitive to temperature elevations, and thus it may be possible to destroy those cancerous cells by elevating a patient's temperature to a level that is toxic to the cancer cells but the rest of the body can tolerate. As another example, a high temperature may be toxic to certain viruses at a level that the rest of the body can tolerate. Raising the patient's temperature above that which the virus can tolerate but within a temperature range the body can tolerate would help to rid the body of the virus. A heat exchanger that can add heat to the bloodstream of a patient at a sufficient rate to maintain the patient in a state of hyperthermia would therefore be desirable.
Besides intentionally induced hypothermia or hyperthermia, it is sometimes desirable to control a patient's temperature to maintain a target temperature, sometimes but not always normothermia. For example, in a patient under general anesthesia during major surgery, the anesthesiologist may wish to control the patient's body temperature by directly adding or removing heat. In such a situation, the patient's normal thermoregulatory responses are reduced or eliminated by anesthesia, and the patient may lose an extraordinary amount of heat to the environment. The patient's unaided body may not generate sufficient heat to compensate for the heat lost and the patient's temperature may drift lower. The anesthesiologist may wish to control the temperature at normothermia, or may prefer to allow the patient to become somewhat hypothermic, but control the depth and duration of the hypothermia. A device and method for precisely controlling body temperature by efficiently adding or removing heat to control a patient's temperature would be very desirable.
In addition to controlling the patient's body temperature, fast and precise control of the adjustments to a patient's thermal condition is very important when a patient's temperature is being manipulated. When using heat transfer from the surface to the core of a patient as by the application of warming or cooling blankets, besides being slow and inefficient, the control of the patient's core temperature is very difficult, if not impossible. The temperature of the patient tends to “overshoot” the desired low temperature, a potentially catastrophic problem when reducing the core temperature of a patient, especially to moderate or sever levels. The body's own metabolic activity and thermoregulatory responses may make even gross adjustments of core temperature by surface cooling difficult, slow, or even impossible. Speedy and precise control is generally not possible by such methods at all.
Control of body temperature using by-pass techniques is generally fairly precise and relatively fast, especially if large volumes of blood are being pumped through the system very quickly. However, as was previously stated, this method is complex, expensive, invasive and it is this very pumping of large quantities of blood that may be seriously damaging to the patient, particularly if maintained for any significant period of time, for example for or more hours.
An efficient heat exchanger might make possible the manipulation of temperature of a select portion of a patient's body. Generally, the temperature throughout the body is relatively constant and generally does not vary significantly from one location to another. (One exception is the skin, which because of exposure to the environment may vary significantly in temperature. In fact, many of the thermoregulatory mechanisms discussed above depend on the ability of the skin to maintain a different temperature, generally a lower temperature, than the temperature of the core of the body.) The mammalian body generally functions most efficiently at normothermia. In some instances, however, regional hypothermia or hyperthermia (hypothermia or hyperthermia of only a part of the body while the rest of the body is at a different temperature, preferably normothermia) may be advantageous. For example, it could be advantageous to cool the head for purposes of neuroprotection of the brain or cool the heart to protect the myocardium from suffering infarction during or after ischemia, or heating a cancerous region to destroy cancerous cells, while maintaining the rest of the body at normal, healthy temperature so that the disadvantages of whole body hypothermia or hyperthermia would not occur. Additionally, where the entire body is cooled, shivering and other thermoregulatory mechanisms may act to counter attempts to cool the body, and if only a specific region were targeted for cooling, those mechanisms might be obviated or eliminated.
A heat exchanger in contact with body fluid, such as blood, which was directed to the target area, might alter the temperature of that region if the heat exchanger was efficient enough to cool the blood sufficiently to cool the tissue in question even if the body temperature, i.e. the initial temperature of the blood flowing past the heat exchange region was normothermic. A heat exchange catheter with a highly efficient heat exchange region would be required for such an application. Where the catheter is inserted percutaneously into the vasculature, it is also highly desirable to have as small an insertion profile as possible to allow as small a puncture as possible, yet allow maximum surface area of the heat exchange region in contact with the flowing blood. Such a catheter is the subject of this application.
For all the foregoing reasons, there is a need for a means to add or remove heat from the body of a patient in an effective and efficient manner, while avoiding the inadequacies of surface heat exchange and avoiding the dangers of internal methods including by-pass methods. There is the need for a means of rapidly, efficiently and controllably exchanging heat with the blood of a patient so the temperature of the patient or target tissue within the patient can be altered or controllably maintained at some target temperature.
Positioning a catheter centrally within the flowing bloodstream may be important for various reasons. Contact between a hot or cold heat exchange region and the walls of a body conduit such as a blood vessel may affect the tissue at the point of contact. In some applications, such as where the user seeks to tack the surface of a dissected vessel to the wall of the vessel, or to thermally treat or ablate the tissue in question, the contact between the balloon and the surrounding body structure is important, even critical. Where, however, the contact is undesirable, it would be advantageous to have a means to prevent the heat exchange region from resting against the vessel wall.
Where temperature control of the temperature of the blood is the goal, it is also advantageous to position the heat exchange region in the center of a flow of body fluid, for example in the center of the lumen of a blood vessel so that the blood flow would surround the entire balloon and no portion of the balloon surface would be sheltered from the flow and thus prevented from exchanging heat at the balloon surface with the body fluid. This would also help prevent blood to pool in areas of low flow or lack of flow, which has been shown to cause blood to clot.
It would be particularly advantageous if the heat exchange surface could be configured to maximize the surface area in contact with the blood while minimizing the obstruction to fluid flow within the vessel. This is desirable both because maximum flow is important for maximum heat exchange and because maximum flow will assure that there is adequate blood supply to tissue downstream of the heat exchange region. Thus the rate of the blood flow past the heat exchange region should be maximized at the same time that the surface area of the heat exchange region within the stream of flowing blood is maximized. A catheter that could achieve these seemingly contradictory goals would be highly desirable.
Additionally, where heat exchange is occurring between two flowing fluids, it is most efficient to have counter-current flow. That is, the flow of the heat exchange liquid is counter to the flow direction of the fluid with which it is exchanging heat. Since a heat exchange catheter might be inserted into blood vessels in various ways that would result in the natural blood flowing being different in different instances (i.e. proximal to distal, or distal to proximal) it would advantageous to have a catheter wherein the direction of the fluid flow in the portion of the balloon exposed to the flow of the body fluid could be adjusted to flow in either direction to permit the catheter could be inserted into the blood vessel in either direction, and the direction of the flow of the heat exchange fluid adjusted to flow counter to the flow in the vessel.
If the heat exchange catheter is to be inserted into the vasculature of a patient, it is very advantageous to have a small insertion profile, that is to say a diameter of the device at insertion that is a small as possible. This permits the insertion of the device through as small sheath, puncture, or incision. Yet the surface area of the heat exchange region should be maximized when the catheter is functioning to exchange heat with the blood. Once again, these goals seem contradictory, and a heat exchange catheter that could achieve both characteristics would be highly advantageous.